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Acknowledgments xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xiii Preface xix Chapter 1. Classification of Nuclear Accidents 1 1.1. Classification of nuclear events: incident or accident? 1 1.2. Military classification 3 1.3. Acknowledged, unknown and secret accidents 6 1.4. Origin and frequency of accidents 8 1.4.1. Origin of accidents 8 1.4.2. Frequency of accidents 8 Chapter 2. Birth of Atomic Weapons and Their First Atrocious Applications 11 2.1. Introduction 11 2.1.1. Discoveries of natural and artificial radioactivity 12 2.1.2. The discovery of fission and the first nuclear reactor 13 2.1.3. The A-bomb 14 2.1.4. French research work before and after World War II 15 2.2. The explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki: the first appalling applications of fission 16 2.2.1. The facts 17 2.2.2. The immediate effects (destruction of buildings) 18 2.2.3. The environmental consequences 20 2.2.4. Health consequences 23 2.2.5. The sociological costs 32 2.2.6. The economic costs 33 2.3. Conclusion 35 Chapter 3. Atomic Bomb Tests 37 3.1. Introduction 37 3.1.1. Test sites 39 3.1.2. Various types of atomic tests 42 3.1.3. Safety of atmospheric tests 43 3.1.4. Various phases of a nuclear explosion 43 3.2. Atmospheric atomic tests: massive voluntary releases 44 3.2.1. A-bombs 45 3.2.2. H-bombs 45 3.2.3. Production of radionuclides from an explosion 46 3.2.4. Production of particles and aerosols 47 3.2.5. Surface deposits 48 3.2.6. Accidents during atmospheric atomic tests 48 3.3. Accidents during underground atomic tests 52 3.3.1. Radioactive releases during underground tests. 52 3.3.2. Soviet accidents 52 3.3.3. American accidents 53 3.3.4. French accidents 53 3.3.5. British and Chinese accidents 54 3.4. Environmental consequences 54 3.4.1. Geomechanical consequences 54 3.4.2. Environmental contaminations 55 3.5. Worldwide spatial consequences of atomic tests 67 3.6. Health consequences 71 3.6.1. Health consequences to military personnel 72 3.6.2. Health consequences on workers 73 3.6.3. Health consequences on local populations 74 3.6.4. Health consequences on the world population 90 3.7. Sociological consequences 91 3.7.1. Taking into account the harm suffered from French tests 91 3.7.2. The case of American military personnel and civilians 94 3.7.3. Psychological illnesses related to nuclear explosions 94 3.8. Economic impact 95 3.8.1. Compensation for military personnel and local populations 95 3.8.2. The cost of French tests at Mururoa and Fangataufa 99 3.9. Conclusion 99 Chapter 4. Accidents Involving Deterrence 101 4.1. Introduction 101 4.1.1. The principle of nuclear deterrence 101 4.1.2. Acquisition of the bomb 103 4.1.3. From massive retaliation to flexible response 104 4.1.4. The second path to nuclear arms 104 4.1.5. The situation in the 21st Century 105 4.1.6. The main non-proliferation treaties 106 4.2. Accidents involving weapons in service 107 4.2.1. Accidents involving bombers carrying nuclear weapons 107 4.2.2. Accidents involving submarines carrying nuclear weapons 110 4.2.3. Missile and rocket accidents 116 4.2.4. Accidents during armed missile tests 117 4.2.5. Accidents involving power generators and satellites 119 4.2.6. Various accidents 120 4.3. Consequences for the environment 121 4.3.1. Consequences of bomber aircraft accidents 121 4.3.2. Consequences of submarine wrecks 124 4.3.3. Consequences of submerged military waste 127 4.4. Consequences for flora and fauna 130 4.5. Consequences on human health 131 4.6. Economic consequences: the cost of nuclear deterrence 134 4.6.1. The American costs of nuclear deterrence 134 4.6.2. French costs of nuclear deterrence 139 4.6.3. British costs of nuclear deterrence 140 4.6.4. The costs of nuclear deterrence for other nations 140 4.7. Strike force in the future 141 4.8. Conclusion 144 Chapter 5. Accidents Involving the Production of Atomic Weapons 145 5.1. Introduction 145 5.2. Accidents involving plutonium production units 151 5.2.1. The Windscale accident 151 5.2.2. The Kyshtym accident at Mayak 152 5.2.3. The accident at Tomsk 154 5.2.4. The Gore accident 155 5.3. Criticality accidents 155 5.4. The consequences of an accident on atomic bomb storage sites 159 5.5. Environmental impact 160 5.5.1. Windscale 160 5.5.2. Kyshtym and its surroundings 161 5.5.3. Tomsk 169 5.5.4. Hanford and Los Alamos 169 5.6. Health consequences 170 5.6.1. Windscale 170 5.6.2. Kyshtym 172 5.6.3. Tomsk 179 5.6.4. Gore 179 5.7. Costs of weapons production plants 180 5.8. Conclusion 182 Chapter 6. Nuclear Warfare 185 6.1. Introduction 185 6.2. Humanity and the legitimacy of a nuclear war 186 6.3. The risks of a nuclear war 187 6.3.1. Nuclear war has not taken place... but it is possible 187 6.3.2. International crises and moments of senseless escalation 188 6.3.3. Accidents that may trigger nuclear war 190 6.3.4. False alarms that may trigger nuclear war 191 6.3.5. Geopolitics and nuclear war 192 6.4. How to avoid nuclear war 194 6.4.1. Increased awareness and establishment of peace movements 194 6.4.2. The Stockholm Appeal 195 6.4.3. Limiting those that possess the bomb 196 6.4.4. Towards a new treaty for outlawing nuclear weapons? 196 6.4.5. Peace movements 197 6.5. Scenarios of nuclear war 198 6.6. The environmental impact of nuclear war 199 6.6.1. Large-scale fires and smoke 200 6.6.2. Dust 201 6.6.3. Radioactive fallout 201 6.6.4. Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and increase in UV rays 201 6.6.5. Oxygen losses and increases in carbon dioxide 202 6.6.6. Reductions in light and temperatures 202 6.6.7. Nuclear winter 203 6.6.8. Radioactive contamination 204 6.7. Ecological impact of nuclear war 205 6.8. Impact of nuclear war on health 206 6.9. Expenditure on dismantling and destroying nuclear weapons in the United States 207 6.10. Conclusion 211 Conclusion 213 References 215 Index 247

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