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Preface xv Acknowledgments xix Part I Fundamentals and Approaches 1 1 An Overview of Corrosion in Oil and Gas Industry: Upstream, Midstream, and Downstream Sectors 3 Yahya T. Al-Janabi 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Corrosion in Upstream Production Operations 4 1.2.1 Causes of Corrosion in Upstream Environments 7 1.2.1.1 Oxygen 8 1.2.1.2 Hydrogen Sulfide, Polysulfides, and Sulfur 9 1.2.1.3 Carbon Dioxide 10 1.2.1.4 Strong Acids 11 1.2.1.5 Concentrated Brines 11 1.2.2 Corrosion Types in Petroleum Production Operations 11 1.2.3 Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Production 12 1.2.3.1 Oil and Gas Wells 12 1.2.3.2 Inhibitor Selection 13 1.2.3.3 Practical Challenges with Inhibition 14 1.2.3.4 Inhibitor Application Methods 14 1.2.3.5 Oxygen Removal 16 1.2.4 Problems Encountered and Protective Measures 17 1.2.4.1 Drilling Fluid Corrosion 17 1.2.4.2 Primary Production 18 1.2.4.3 Corrosion in Secondary Recovery Operations 20 1.2.5 CO2 Injection 23 1.2.6 Corrosion of Oil and Gas Offshore Production Platforms 23 1.2.7 Corrosion of Gathering Systems and Tanks 23 1.2.7.1 Sweet Gas Corrosion 24 1.2.7.2 Sour Gas Corrosion 24 1.2.7.3 Oil Wells Corrosion 24 1.3 Corrosion in Midstream Sector 25 1.3.1 Control of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Oil Pipeline Systems 27 1.3.2 Control of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Gas Pipeline Systems 28 1.3.3 Control of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Water Pipeline Systems 28 1.3.4 Chemical Inhibition of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Pipeline Systems 29 1.4 Corrosion in Downstream Sector 30 1.4.1 Materials of Construction 31 1.4.2 Corrosion in Refineries and Petrochemical Plants 32 1.4.3 Corrosion Inhibitors in Refinery and Petrochemical Plants 33 1.4.4 Corrosion Control of Water-Recirculating Systems 33 1.4.4.1 Typical Corrosion Reactions in Water-Recirculating Systems 34 1.4.4.2 Water Corrosivity 35 1.4.4.3 Corrosion Control 36 1.5 Conclusions and Outlook 37 References 38 2 Fundamentals of Corrosion and Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Sectors 41 Anil Bhardwaj 2.1 Introduction 41 2.2 Material Degradation and Corrosion 41 2.3 Electromotive Force (EMF) Series and Galvanic Series 49 2.4 Forms of Corrosion 51 2.4.1 Uniform Corrosion 51 2.4.2 Galvanic or Two-Metal Corrosion 52 2.4.2.1 Factors Affecting Galvanic Corrosion 53 2.4.2.2 How to Reduce Galvanic Corrosion 54 2.4.2.3 Benefits of Galvanic Effect 54 2.4.3 Crevice Corrosion 54 2.4.4 Pitting 55 2.4.5 Intergranular Corrosion 57 2.4.6 Erosion-Corrosion 58 2.4.7 Stress-Corrosion Cracking (SCC) 60 2.4.8 Under-Deposit Corrosion (UDC) 61 2.4.9 Acid Corrosion 63 2.4.10 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 63 2.5 Factors Influencing Oilfield Corrosion 66 2.5.1 Free Water and Water Composition 66 2.5.2 Type of Oil 68 2.5.3 Gas Composition 69 2.5.4 Pressure Effect 70 2.5.5 Temperature Effect 71 2.5.6 Velocity Effect 71 2.6 Corrosion Control 72 2.6.1 Material Selection 72 2.6.2 Environment Control 73 2.6.3 Proper Design 73 2.6.4 Chemical Treatment 73 2.7 Conclusions and Outlook 74 References 74 3 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry 77 Mohamed A. Migahed 3.1 Introduction 77 3.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Inhibition 78 3.2.1 Influence of Temperature and Pressure 78 3.2.2 Influence of Flow Parameters 81 3.2.3 Effect of Natural Gases 83 3.2.3.1 Effect of Sulfur Dioxide 83 3.2.3.2 Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide 86 3.2.3.3 Effect of Carbon Dioxide 88 3.2.4 Effect of Cationic Species 91 3.2.5 Effect of Anionic Species 91 3.2.6 Effect of Microorganisms 96 3.2.7 Effect of pH 98 3.2.8 Effect of the Pre-corrosion 100 3.3 Conclusions and Outlook 101 References 102 4 Key Materials in Oil and Gas Production and the Choice of Inhibitors 111 Thiago J. Mesquita and Herve Marchebois 4.1 Introduction 111 4.2 Materials in Oil and Gas Industry 112 4.2.1 Carbon Steel or CRA? 112 4.2.2 Non-metallic Materials 116 4.3 The Choice of Corrosion Inhibitor for Oil and Gas Production 116 4.3.1 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Corrosion Inhibitor 117 4.3.2 Laboratory Corrosion Inhibitor Selection 119 4.4 Principles of CI Qualification Tests 120 4.4.1 Bubble Test 121 4.4.2 Partitioning Test 122 4.4.2.1 Corrosivity of the Water Phase After Partitioning 122 4.4.2.2 Titrability and Partitioning Coefficient 123 4.4.3 Impact on the Process Test 124 4.4.3.1 Emulsion Tendency 124 4.4.3.2 Foaming Tendency 125 4.4.4 Wheel Test 125 4.4.5 HP Corrosion Test Loop 127 4.4.6 HP Jet Impingement Test 128 4.5 Conclusions and Outlook 129 References 130 5 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations 135 Anupama R. Prasad, Anupama Kunyankandy, and Abraham Joseph 5.1 Introduction 135 5.2 Corrosion: Global Economic Loss 136 5.2.1 Historical Summary of Corrosion Cost Studies 137 5.2.2 NACE-IMPACT: Global Corrosion Cost 138 5.2.3 Global Corrosion Management-IMPACT Estimate 139 5.3 Depreciation in Oil and Gas Industries 140 5.3.1 Corrosion Attacks 140 5.3.2 Failures and Risk Factors 141 5.4 Fiscal Impacts 142 5.4.1 Corrosion Costs a Lot 143 5.5 Inhibition: Monetary Measures 144 5.5.1 Worthy Monitoring 145 5.5.2 Protection in Proper Way 146 5.6 Conclusions and Outlook 147 References 148 Part II Choice of Inhibitors 151 6 Corrosion Inhibitors for Acidizing Process in Oil and Gas Sectors 153 Kashif R. Ansari, Dheeraj Singh Chauhan, Ambrish Singh, Viswanathan S. Saji, and Mumtaz A. Quraishi 6.1 Introduction 153 6.2 Acidizing Process 154 6.2.1 Type of Oil Well Reservoirs 154 6.2.2 Types of Acid Used 155 6.2.3 Methods Used to Control Acidizing Process 157 6.2.3.1 Retarded Acid Systems 157 6.2.3.2 Gelled Acids 157 6.2.3.3 Chemically Retarded Acids 157 6.2.3.4 Emulsified Acids 157 6.2.4 Acid Selection 157 6.2.4.1 Rock-Dissolving Capacity of Acid 158 6.2.4.2 Spending Time of Acid 158 6.2.4.3 Solubility of Reaction Products 158 6.2.4.4 Density and Viscosity 158 6.2.4.5 Etching Pattern After Acidizing 158 6.2.5 Types of Acidizing Process 159 6.3 Application of Corrosion Inhibitors in Acidizing Processes 160 6.4 Selected Acidizing Inhibitors 169 6.5 Conclusions and Outlook 170 References 171 7 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sweet Oilfield Environment (CO2 Corrosion) 177 Ubong Eduok and Jerzy Szpunar 7.1 Introduction 177 7.2 Mechanism of CO2 Corrosion 178 7.3 Factors Affecting Sweet Corrosion 179 7.3.1 Effects of Hydrogen Concentration (pH) and Temperature 179 7.3.2 Effects of Flow Rate and Partial Pressure 180 7.3.3 Effects of Molecular Oxygen and Iron Ions (Fe2+) Concentration 181 7.4 Toward Inhibition and Control of Sweet Corrosion 181 7.5 Altering Corrosion Kinetics with Corrosion Inhibitors 182 7.6 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sweet Oilfield Environments 183 7.6.1 Corrosion Inhibitors Based on Smaller Molecules 183 7.6.1.1 Imidazoline Derivatives 183 7.6.1.2 Cyclic Non-imidazoline Compounds 195 7.6.1.3 Acyclic Non-imidazoline Compounds 197 7.6.2 Corrosion Inhibitors Based on Macromolecules 210 7.6.2.1 Polymers 210 7.6.2.2 Plant Biomass Extracts 211 7.6.2.3 Others 218 7.7 Biocorrosion in Saturated CO2 Media 218 7.8 Conclusions and Outlook 219 References 220 8 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sour Oilfield Environment (H2S Corrosion) 229 Saviour A. Umoren, MosesM. Solomon, and Viswanathan S. Saji 8.1 Introduction 229 8.1.1 Impact of Corrosion on Economy and Life 229 8.1.2 Background on Sour Corrosion 230 8.1.3 Factors Influencing Sour Corrosion 232 8.1.3.1 Effect of H2S Concentration 232 8.1.3.2 Effect of Temperature and Exposure Duration 233 8.1.3.3 Effect of Flow Rate 233 8.1.3.4 Effect of H2S Partial Pressure 233 8.1.3.5 Effect of Fluid Chemistry 233 8.2 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sour Oilfield Environment 233 8.2.1 Amine-Based Inhibitors 234 8.2.2 Imidazoline-Based Inhibitors 237 8.2.3 Gemini Surfactant-Based Inhibitors 238 8.2.4 Polymer-Based Inhibitors 244 8.3 Conclusions and Outlook 247 References 247 9 Corrosion Inhibitors for Refinery Operations 255 Yahya T. Al-Janabi 9.1 Introduction 255 9.2 Areas/Units Where Inhibitors are in Demand in Refineries 257 9.2.1 Atmospheric and Vacuum Crude Oil Distillation Units 257 9.2.2 Fluid Catalytic Cracking: Coker 259 9.2.3 Hydroprocessing 260 9.2.4 Catalytic Reforming 260 9.2.5 Amine (Acid Gas Treatment) Plants 262 9.2.6 Support Units 262 9.3 Types of Aggressive Species Encountered in Refineries 262 9.3.1 Air 263 9.3.2 Water 263 9.3.3 Hydrogen Sulfide 263 9.3.4 Hydrogen Chloride 263 9.3.5 Nitrogen Compounds 264 9.3.6 Sour Water 264 9.4 Common Types of Inhibitors Employed/Reported in Refinery Units 264 9.4.1 Neutralizers 264 9.4.2 Filming Inhibitors 265 9.5 Conclusions and Outlook 268 References 268 10 Inhibitors for High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Fields 271 Vitalis I. Chukwuike and Rakesh C. Barik 10.1 Introduction 271 10.2 High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Fields 272 10.3 Mechanism of High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Field 273 10.3.1 High-Temperature Oxidation 274 10.3.2 High-Temperature Sulfidation 276 10.3.3 High-Temperature Carburization 276 10.3.4 High-Temperature Chlorination 277 10.3.5 High-Temperature Nitridation 277 10.3.6 Sulfidation-Oxidation 278 10.3.7 Corrosion Due to Formation of Ash, Deposits, and Molten Salts 278 10.4 Categories and Choice of Inhibitors for Oil and Gas High-Temperature Corrosion 278 10.4.1 Calcium Carbonate Scale and Ash Deposit Inhibitors 278 10.4.2 High-Temperature Acidization Corrosion Inhibitors 279 10.4.3 High-Temperature Naphthenic Acid Corrosion Inhibitors 283 10.4.4 Other Inhibitors of High-Temperature Corrosion 285 10.5 Conclusions and Outlook 286 References 287 11 Experience in Using Chemicals to Mitigate Corrosion in Difficult Corrosive Environments in the Oil and Gas Industry 289 Sunder Ramachandran 11.1 Introduction 289 11.2 Corrosion Inhibition for Systems with High Amounts of H2S 290 11.3 Corrosion Inhibition for CO2 Tertiary Flood Systems and CO2 Sequestration 292 11.4 Corrosion Inhibition in Deepwater Systems 295 11.5 Corrosion Inhibition at High Temperatures 296 11.6 Conclusions and Outlook 297 References 298 12 Polymeric Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Industry 303 Saviour A. Umoren and Moses M. Solomon 12.1 Introduction 303 12.2 Polymeric Corrosion Inhibitors 304 12.2.1 Polymeric Inhibitors for Chemical Cleaning 304 12.2.2 Inhibitors for Acidization Process 308 12.2.3 Inhibitors for Sweet and Sour Environments 311 12.2.4 Inhibitors for High-Temperature Applications 315 12.3 Conclusions and Outlook 315 References 317 13 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry 321 Bhawna Chugh, Sanjeeve Thakur, and Ashish Kumar Singh 13.1 Introduction 321 13.2 Biofilm Formation 322 13.3 Microbial Communities Related to Corrosion 323 13.3.1 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria 323 13.3.2 Iron-Oxidizing Bacteria 324 13.3.3 Acid-Producing Bacteria 324 13.3.4 Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria 325 13.3.5 Slime-Forming Bacteria 325 13.4 Potential Prevention Strategies 325 13.4.1 Periodic Pigging 325 13.4.2 Cleanliness 326 13.4.3 Cathodic Protection and Coatings 326 13.4.4 Biocides/Inhibitors 327 13.4.5 Biological Treatment 328 13.5 Recent Developments of Chemical Inhibitors to Mitigate MIC 329 13.6 Biological Inhibition of MIC 329 13.6.1 Corrosion Inhibition by Nitrate-Reducing Bacteria 329 13.6.2 Corrosion Inhibition by Regenerative Biofilms 331 13.6.2.1 Corrosion Inhibition by Eviction of Corrosive Agents 331 13.6.2.2 Corrosion Inhibition by Formation of Protective Barrier Layer 332 13.6.2.3 Corrosion Inhibition via Antimicrobial Producing Biofilm 332 13.6.2.4 Corrosion Possessing Biofilm Secreted Corrosion Inhibitor 333 13.6.2.5 Corrosion Inhibition with Biofilm Secreted Bio Surfactant 333 13.7 Conclusions and Outlook 333 References 334 14 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Field Applications 339 Benjamin Valdez-Salas, Michael Schorr-Wiener, and Nelson Cheng 14.1 Introduction 339 14.2 Magna International VPCIs 340 14.3 Corrosion and Its Control in OGI 341 14.3.1 Fundamentals of Corrosion 341 14.3.2 Oil and Gas Industries 342 14.3.3 OGI Sectors 343 14.3.4 Corrosiveness of Oil and Gas Products 345 14.3.5 Metals and Alloys in OGI 346 14.4 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors 346 14.4.1 Fundamentals 346 14.4.2 VPCI Application in OGI 348 14.4.3 Testing and Monitoring of VPCI 349 14.4.4 Research and Development 350 14.5 Conclusions and Outlook 353 Acknowledgments 353 References 353 15 Mechanisms of Inhibitor Action: Passivation and Self-Healing 359 Ivana Jevremovi?, Ying-Hsuan Chen, Abdulrahman Altin, and Andreas Erbe 15.1 Introduction 359 15.2 Systematics and Phenomenology 360 15.3 Surface Active Inhibitors 364 15.4 Case Study (1): Imidazoline-Based Surfactant for Mitigation of Mild Steel Corrosion in the Presence of CO2 367 15.5 Case Study (2): The Interaction of 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) with Copper 369 15.6 Case Study (3): -Cyclodextrin Facilitates Release of Inhibitors 372 15.7 Conclusions and Outlook 375 References 376 Part III Interaction with Co-additives 383 16 Antiscalants and Their Compatibility with Corrosion Inhibitors 385 Qiwei Wang and Tao Chen 16.1 Introduction 385 16.2 Scale Formation 385 16.3 Scale Mitigation Strategy 388 16.3.1 Flow Control 388 16.3.2 Fluid Alteration 388 16.3.3 Deposit Removal 388 16.3.4 Chemical Inhibition 388 16.4 Antiscalant Chemistry 389 16.5 Antiscalant Function Mechanisms 393 16.5.1 Nucleation Inhibition 393 16.5.2 Crystal Growth Retardation 394 16.5.3 Crystal Shape Modification 395 16.5.4 Dispersion 395 16.6 Antiscalant Treatment 396 16.7 Compatibility with Corrosion Inhibitors 397 16.7.1 Impact of Corrosion Inhibitor on Antiscalant Performance 398 16.7.2 Impact of Antiscalant on Corrosion Inhibitor Performance 399 16.8 Conclusions and Outlook 399 References 400 17 Hydrate Inhibitors and Their Interferences in Corrosion Inhibition 407 Yutaek Seo 17.1 Introduction 407 17.2 Gas Hydrate Blockage Formation Process 407 17.3 Hydrates Inhibition Strategies with Alcohols or Glycols 409 17.4 Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitors 412 17.5 Interaction Between Hydrate and Corrosion Inhibitors 414 17.6 Conclusions and Outlook 416 References 416 18 Sulfide Scavengers and Their Interference in Corrosion Inhibition 421 Viswanathan S. Saji 18.1 Introduction 421 18.2 Sulfide Scavengers: Types and Properties 422 18.3 Corrosion and Fouling Inhibiting/Inducing Properties of Scavengers and Their Compatibility with Co-additives 424 18.4 Conclusions and Outlook 427 References 428 Index 433

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