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Preface xvii 1 Composites: Types, Method of Preparation and Application as An Emerging Tool for Environmental Remediation 1 Bushra Fatima, Geetanjali Rathi, Rabia Ahmad and Saif Ali Chaudhry 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Classification Based on Matrix 4 1.2.1 Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) 5 1.2.2 Methods for Synthesizing Metal-Matrix Composites 5 1.2.3 Bonding in Metal Matrix Composites 9 1.2.4 Applications of Metal Matrix Composites 10 1.3 Polymer Matrix Composites 10 1.3.1 Classification of Polymer Matrix Composites 12 1.3.2 Methods for Synthesizing of Polymer Composites 13 1.3.3 Bonding in Polymer Matrix Composites 15 1.3.4 Applications of Polymer Matrix Composites 16 1.4 Ceramic Matrix Composites 16 1.4.1 Methods for Synthesizing Ceramic Matrix Composites 17 1.4.2 Advantage of Ceramic Matrix Composites 18 1.4.3 Disadvantages of Ceramic Matrix Composites 18 1.4.4 Applications of Ceramic Matrix Composites 18 1.5 Classification Based on Reinforcement 19 1.5.1 Fiber-Reinforced Composites 19 1.5.2 Particle Reinforced Composites 20 1.5.3 Structural Reinforced Composites 20 1.6 Recent Advancement in Composites 21 1.6.1 Methods for Synthesizing Green Composites 22 1.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Green Composites over Traditional Composites 22 1.6.3 Applications of Green Composites 22 1.7 Advantages of Composites 23 1.8 Disadvantages of Composites 23 1.9 Conclusion 24 1.10 Future Prospects 24 1.11 Acknowledgement 25 References 25 2 Applications of Composites Materials for Environmental Aspects 33 Pintu Pandit, Kunal Singha, Akshay Jadhav, T.N. Gayatri and Utpal Dhara 2.1 Introduction 34 2.2 History of Composites for Eco-Friendly Engineering 35 2.3 Composites for Greenhouses 36 2.4 Polymers have been Reinforced by Fiber (FRP) for Greenhouse 36 2.4.1 Composites Employed in Controlling Humidity in the Home which is Green 36 2.4.2 Composite Films for Optical Transmission of Greenhouse 37 2.5 Composites Employed in Acoustic Applications 37 2.6 Natural Fiber Composites 40 2.6.1 Pretreatment of Natural Fiber 40 2.6.2 Factors Impacting on Bodily Functioning of Natural Fiber Composites 41 2.6.2.1 Fiber Selection 41 2.6.2.2 Matrix Selection 42 2.6.2.3 Interface Strength 42 2.6.2.4 Fiber Orientation 42 2.6.3 Jute-Coir Composites for Constructions 43 2.6.4 Bamboo Composites for Construction 43 2.7 Effective Factors for Low Frequency Acoustic Absorption 44 2.7.1 Fiber Size 44 2.7.2 Feed Size 45 2.7.3 Majority Density 45 2.7.4 Sample Layer Thickness 46 2.8 Composites Employed in Wind Energy 46 2.9 Composites Used in Wind Turbines 47 2.9.1 Impact of Wind Hit on the Composite Material 47 2.10 Composite Materials for the Marine Environment 48 2.11 Composite Materials for Aerospace Engineering 49 2.12 Composites Materials for Civil Engineering 50 2.13 Composite Materials Employed in Solar Energy Panels 50 2.14 Conclusions 51 References 52 3 The Application of Mechano-Chemistry in Composite Preparation 57 S. C. Onwubu, P. S. Mdluli, S. Singh, and M. U. Makgobole 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 The Science of Mechanochemistry 58 3.3 Brief History of Mechanochemistry Application 59 3.4 Mechanochemical Tools 60 3.5 Applications of Mechanochemistry in the Milling of Eggshell Powder 63 3.6 Conclusions 65 References 66 4 Fiber-Reinforced Composites for Environmental Engineering 69 Gayatri T. Nadathur, Pintu Pandit and Kunal Singha 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 Strength of FRC Materials 72 4.3 Composite Manufacturing 74 4.4 Environmental Sustainability of Composites 77 4.5 Green Composites 80 4.6 Composite Filtration Membranes/Media 85 4.7 Liquid (Water or Oil) Filtration Media 86 4.8 Air Filtration Media 88 4.9 Filtration/Separation of Oil-Water Liquid Mixtures 88 4.10 FRCs for Noise Reduction 91 4.11 Fire Resistant FRCs 92 4.12 Conclusions 94 References 94 5 Polymer Nanocomposites: Alternative to Reduce Environmental Impact of Non-Biodegradable Food Packaging Materials 99 Shiji Mathew and Radhakrishnan EK 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Role of Food Packaging Materials 101 5.3 Environmental Impact of Food Packaging 102 5.4 Polymer Nanocomposites 103 5.5 Biopolymers as Packaging Materials 104 5.6 Advantages of Biopolymers 105 5.7 Reinforcements used in Bionanocomposites 106 5.7.1 Nanoclays-Layered Clays/Silicates 106 5.7.2 Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 107 5.8 Bionanocomposites 108 5.9 Polysaccharide-Based Bionanocomposites 108 5.9.1 Starch-Based Packaging Material 108 5.10 Protein-Based Bionanocomposites 109 5.10.1 Gelatin Bionanocomposites 110 5.11 Biodegradable Synthetic Polymers 111 5.11.1 Polylactic Acid-Based Packaging Materials 111 5.11.2 Poly (Vinyl) Alcohol-Based Packaging Materials 112 5.12 Properties of Bionanocomposites 113 5.12.1 Mechanical Properties 115 5.12.2 Barrier Properties 115 5.12.3 Thermal Properties 117 5.12.4 Biodegradability 117 5.13 Changes Occurring during Biodegradation Process 119 5.14 Methods of Preparation of Bionanocomposites 120 5.14.1 In Situ Polymerization 120 5.14.2 Melt Intercalation Technique 120 5.14.3 Solvent Casting 121 5.15 Bionanocomposite Characterization 121 5.16 Conclusions 123 References 124 6 Environmental Science and Engineering Applications of Polymer and Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites 135 Niranjan Thondavada, Rajasekhar Chokkareddy, Nuthalapati Venkatasubba Naidu and G. G. Redhi 6.1 Introduction 136 6.2 Preparation of Polymer Nanocomposites 137 6.2.1 Direct Compounding 137 6.2.2 In-Situ Synthesis 138 6.3 Environmental Applications of PNCs 141 6.3.1 Catalytic and Redox Degradation of Pollutants 141 6.4 Biocatalytic Nanocomposites 142 6.4.1 Adsorption of Pollutants 151 6.5 Preparation of Nanocellulose 155 6.5.1 Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites 158 6.5.2 Antimicrobial Filters 162 6.5.3 Catalysis 162 6.5.4 Energy Applications 164 6.6 Conclusion 166 References 166 7 Nanocomposites of ZnO for Water Remediation 179 Parita Basnet and Somenath Chatterjee 7.1 Introduction 180 7.2 Aqueous Pollutants 182 7.3 Types of ZnO NCs 184 7.3.1 M-ZnO NCs as Photocatalyst 185 7.3.1.1 Metal Doped/Incorporated-ZnO NCs as Photocatalyst 185 7.3.1.2 Metal Deposited-ZnO NCs as Photocatalyst 188 7.3.2 Semiconductor-ZnO (S-ZnO) NCs as Photocatalyst 191 7.3.3 Polymer-ZnO (P-ZnO) NCs as Photocatalyst 193 7.3.4 Mixed Metal, Semiconductor and/or Polymer-ZnO NCs as Photocatalyst 197 7.3.4.1 Bimetallic-ZnO NCs as Photocatalyst 197 7.3.4.2 Metal-Semiconductor-ZnO (M-S-ZnO) NCs as Photocatalyst 199 7.4 Other Applications Related to the Photocatalytic Activities of ZnO NCs 201 7.5 Conclusion 206 7.6 Acknowledgement 222 References 222 8 Degradation of Organic Compounds by the Applications of Metal Nanocomposites 235 Iffat Zareen Ahmad and Mohammed Kuddus 8.1 Introduction 237 8.2 Metal Oxides Used in Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater 244 8.2.1 Titanium Dioxide 244 8.2.2 Graphene Oxide 248 8.2.3 Zinc Oxide 249 8.2.4 Cesium Oxide 250 8.2.5 Silver Salts 250 8.2.6 Bismuth Compounds 251 8.2.7 Copper Compounds 252 8.2.8 Gold Compounds 254 8.3 Conclusion 255 References 256 9 Nanocomposites in Environmental Engineering 263 Mohammad Nadeem Lone and Irshad A. Wani 9.1 Introduction 264 9.2 Polymeric Nanocomposites 265 9.2.1 PNC’s as Catalysts and Redox Active Media 265 9.2.2 PNC’s for Adsorption and Degradation of Pollutants 285 9.3 Magnetic Polymer Based Nanocomposites 287 9.3.1 Types of Magnetic Nanocomposites 287 9.3.1.1 Type I: Inorganic Core Shell Nanocomposites 287 9.3.1.2 Type II: Self Assembled Colloidal Nanocomposites 288 9.3.1.3 Type III: Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposites 288 9.3.2 Synthesis of Magnetic Nanocomposites (MNC’s) 289 9.3.2.1 Ex-Situ Synthesis 289 9.3.2.2 In-Situ Synthesis 290 9.3.3 Environmental Applications 294 9.3.3.1 Elimination of Heavy Metals 294 9.3.3.2 Elimination of Toxic Dyes and Effluents 297 9.3.3.3 Removal of Oil from Water 298 9.4 Future Perspectives and Conclusion 299 References 300 10 Bio-Composites from Food Wastes 319 Pintu Choudhary, Priyanga Suriyamoorthy, J. A. Moses and C. Anandharamakrishnan 10.1 Introduction 319 10.2 Vegetables Waste 326 10.3 Fruit Waste 329 10.4 Coffee and Tea Waste 332 10.5 Animal-Based Food Waste 333 10.6 Food Grain Waste 337 References 339 11 Properties of Food Packaging Biocomposites and Its Impact on Environment 347 K.S. Yoha, M. Maria Leena, J.A. Moses and C. Anandharamakrishnan 11.1 Introduction 348 11.2 Importance of Food Packaging 350 11.3 Packaging Materials Impact on Environment 351 11.4 Risks of Elemental Migration from Packaging Material 352 11.4.1 Contact Migration 354 11.4.2 Non-Contact Migration 355 11.5 Selection of Food Packaging Material 355 11.6 Biodegradable Polymers 356 11.6.1 Polysaccharides 358 11.6.1.1 Sugar-Based Biopolymers 358 11.6.1.2 Starch-Based Biopolymers 358 11.6.1.3 Cellulose-Based Biopolymers 359 11.6.1.4 Pectin 359 11.6.2 Proteins 360 11.6.2.1 Collagen 360 11.6.2.2 Casein 361 11.6.2.3 Zein 361 11.6.2.4 Gluten 362 11.6.3 Seaweed Polymers 362 11.6.4 Plants Seed Mucilage 366 11.6.5 Micro-Organisms Synthesized Biopolymers 367 11.6.5.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 367 11.6.5.2 Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) 367 11.6.5.3 Polyhydroxybutyrate-Co-Hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) 368 11.6.6 Bio-Derived Synthetic Polymers 368 11.6.6.1 Poly-Lactic Acid (PLA) 368 11.6.6.2 Poly Glycolic Acid (PGA) 369 11.6.6.3 Poly-Lactic-Co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA) 370 11.7 Bio-Based Polymeric Composite Materials 370 11.7.1 Starch-Based Composites 370 11.7.2 Poly(Hydroxyalkanoate)-Based Composites 371 11.8 Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Composites 371 11.9 Surface Modifications of Biocomposites 372 11.10 Conclusion 373 References 374 12 Environmentally Benign Protocols for the Synthesis of Transition Metal Oxide: A Brief Outlook 383 Neha D. Desai, Kishorkumar V. Khot, Tukaram D. Dongale, Atul Khot and Popatrao N. Bhosale 12.1 Introduction 384 12.2 Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) 385 12.2.1 Introduction 385 12.2.2 Method of Synthesis 387 12.2.3 Experimental of TiO2 Thin Film 389 12.2.4 Results and Discussions 389 12.3 Molybdenum Trioxide (MoO3) 392 12.3.1 Introduction 392 12.3.2 Experimental 394 12.3.3 Growth Mechanism 395 12.3.4 Structural Analysis 396 12.4 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) 398 12.4.1 Introduction 398 12.4.2 Experimental 400 12.4.3 TiO2 Memristor Devices 404 12.4.4 ZnO Memristor Devices 406 References 409 Index 421

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